1. Geological Formation of the Indian Subcontinent (4.5 Billion–50 Million Years Ago)

• Earth’s Formation: ~4.5 billion years ago.
• Gondwana Supercontinent: India was part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana (~180 million years ago).
• Breakup and Drift: ~150 million years ago, India broke off and drifted northward.
• Collision with Eurasia: ~50 million years ago, the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate, forming the Himalayas and shaping India’s geography.

2. Prehistoric India (Before 3300 BCE)

• Stone Age:
  • Paleolithic (500,000–10,000 BCE): Early tools and cave art (Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh).
  • Neolithic (10,000–3300 BCE): Agriculture, pottery, and settled life (Mehrgarh, Balochistan).
• Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE):
  • Urban Centers: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira.
  • Achievements: Advanced town planning, drainage systems, and trade with Mesopotamia.

3. Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE)

• Aryan Migration: Indo-Aryans settled in the Indo-Gangetic plains.
• Sacred Texts: Composition of the Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, etc.).
• Society: Caste system (varnas) and early republics (Mahajanapadas).
• Epic Age: Compilation of the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

4. Ancient Empires (6th Century BCE–6th Century CE)

• Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE):
  • Chandragupta Maurya: Founded the empire with Chanakya’s guidance.
  • Ashoka the Great: Spread Buddhism after the Kalinga War; erected pillars and edicts.
• Gupta Empire (320–550 CE):
  • Golden Age: Advances in science (Aryabhata), literature (Kalidasa), and art (Ajanta-Ellora caves).
  • Decline: Hun invasions and fragmentation.

5. Medieval India (6th Century–16th Century CE)

• Early Kingdoms:
  • Cholas (9th–13th century): Maritime power; Brihadeeswara Temple.
  • Rajputs: Valor and resistance (e.g., Rana Sanga, Prithviraj Chauhan).
• Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526):
  • Slave Dynasty: Qutub Minar.
  • Mughal Precursor: Turkic-Afghan rule; introduced Persian culture.
• Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646): Hindu kingdom in South India; Hampi ruins.

6. Mughal Era (1526–1857)

• Babur: Founded the empire (First Battle of Panipat, 1526).
• Akbar: Religious tolerance, administrative reforms (Din-i-Ilahi).
• Shah Jahan: Built the Taj Mahal and Red Fort.
• Aurangzeb: Empire’s decline due to rigid policies and Maratha resistance.

7. Colonial Period (1600–1947)

• European Arrival:
  • Portuguese (1498), Dutch, French, and British (East India Company, 1600).
• British Raj (1858–1947):
  • Economic Exploitation: Drain of wealth, famines.
  • Revolts: 1857 Revolt (First War of Independence).
  • Freedom Struggle: Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation, Quit India Movements; Subhas Chandra Bose’s INA.

8. Independent India (1947–Present)

• Partition: India and Pakistan created (1947).
• Constitution: Adopted in 1950; democratic republic.
• Economic Reforms: Green Revolution (1960s), Liberalization (1991).
• Modern Achievements:
  • Space Program (ISRO: Mangalyaan, Chandrayaan).
  • IT Revolution (Bengaluru as “Silicon Valley”).
  • Cultural Influence: Bollywood, yoga, and diaspora.

Key Cultural and Scientific Contributions

• Religion: Birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism.
• Mathematics: Zero, decimal system (Aryabhata).
• Medicine: Ayurveda (Charaka, Sushruta).
• Architecture: Temples (Khajuraho), Mughal monuments (Taj Mahal).

Modern Challenges

• Democracy: World’s largest, with linguistic and religious diversity.
• Development: Poverty, environmental issues, urbanization.
• Global Role: Emerging superpower in tech, economy, and diplomacy.